Musharraf: Bhutto Knew Of Risks

(CBS) Pakistan’s president, Pervez Musharraf, leads a country in crisis ten days after the assassination of Benazir Bhutto. Pakistan is the only Islamic country with nuclear bombs, a place where the influence of the Taliban and al Qaeda is growing.

The Bush administration hopes Musharraf can save his country, but he’s the man many Pakistanis blame for its crisis. Was he responsible for the assassination, as many Pakistanis believe? Did his government fail to provide adequate protection? Or did Benazir Bhutto take unnecessary risks?

Lara Logan asked these questions of President Musharraf on Saturday in Islamabad, his first interview since the Bhutto assassination.

“I knew that she’s under threat. She herself knew that. I told her personally,” Musharraf says.

“So it was just a matter of time, do you think?” Logan asks.

“It’s your luck,” Musharraf replies. “There’s no real protection against a suicide bomber really.”

Benazir Bhutto’s luck ran out on December 27th. She was leaving a campaign rally in her bid to become prime minister for the third time. Bhutto was waving and smiling from her vehicle as excited supporters swarmed around her.

Gunshots rang out. Then, moments later, a suicide bomber blew himself up. In less than two hours, the announcement came that Bhutto was dead.

“That came as an utter shock. It came as an utter shock,” Musharraf remembers.

Asked what the first thing was that went through his mind when he heard the news, Musharraf tells Logan, “Well, I knew there was going to be a disturbance in the country and I immediately told the army commander and told everyone to alert everyone, and we must take immediate measures to control any kind of agitation, any kind of emotional outburst.”

The moment word of Bhutto’s death hit the streets, riots broke out; much of the rage was directed at President Musharraf, her main political rival.

“By the time of her assassination, how would you describe the nature of your relationship with her?” Logan asks.

“Up and down. It wasn’t constant - I had asked her not to come before the election, and that we will arrange - then she could come after the election, which she agreed. She had agreed. But then she decided to come all of a sudden. Now that changed a little. It upset me a little,” Musharraf says.

“Were you feeling that she was not sticking to her agreements with you, that she wasn’t keeping her word?” Logan asks.

“Well, to an extent yes. She used to change the goalposts frequently, depending on the ups and downs here in the country,” Musharraf replies.

“It sounds like she was annoying you,” Logan remarks.

“On many occasions,” Musharraf admits. “But on many other occasions she was positive.”

“Did you like her?” Logan asks.

“I think in such a situation it’s not your personal like and dislikes. It’s more for the nation that I thought one has to interact with her,” Musharraf says.

“When I hear words like that, you know, ‘One has to interact with her for the sake of the nation,’ sounds to me like you didn’t like her very much,” Logan remarks.

“No I wouldn’t say I didn’t like her - well, I like or dislike, I didn’t have any kind of personal friendship with her,” Musharraf says.

The president was upset with Bhutto last October, when, in spite of warnings, she went ahead with a rally in Karachi on her return from self-imposed exile in Dubai. Her convoy was attacked, with two blasts killing close to 150 people.

“Now, in Karachi we knew from Sheikh Mohammad of Dubai, I mean, I got information, intelligence from him. We had our own intelligence. He sent intelligence that there are suicide bombers there targeting her. We told her this,” Musharraf explains. “And she knew it. We told her. Don’t do it!”

“And 145 people died,” Logan remarks.

“We offered. We said that we can give you a helicopter,” Musharraf says. “But she decided to go in that procession. That’s what happened.”

Asked if he thinks that was a mistake, Musharraf tells Logan, “Yes, indeed. Absolutely.”

(CBS) Musharraf also thinks Bhutto made a mistake by going to the area where she was killed, where a former prime minister had previously been assassinated. And it wasn’t the first time Bhutto had tried to hold a rally there.

“We again had intelligence that this is a dangerous place and there’s a likelihood of a suicide attempt. We asked her not to go,” Musharraf says. “She insisted she will go. We stopped her. And we got such a poor - flak - we got flak from all over the world, from media, from Western media.”

“From the U.S.?” Logan asks.

“From everywhere,” Musharraf explains.

The night of the assassination, Musharraf believes Bhutto broke a basic rule of security in a crowded charged political rally: to be particularly careful when leaving.

“She should have just gone and moved fast, gone and waved, yes. But if you’re standing and — because you are vulnerable. You’re vulnerable and people are charging,” Musharraf says. “And all the film that you see, people are charging. Now, when people are there by the hundreds swarming around you, this man is one of them. Who can check these people at that stage?”

“And the mistake she made, if I understand you correctly, was stopping?” Logan asks.

“Yes. But then the mistake was not that,” Musharraf says. “I mean, God was kind — she went into the car in spite of the fact that she was waving and all that. She did go into the car. Now is the point. Why did she stand outside the car?”

“Why did she stand up in the hatch?” Logan asks.

“Entirely. Who’s to blame?” Musharraf replies.

Asked who is to blame, Musharraf says, “Only she.”

“So Benazir Bhutto, in your words, should bear some responsibility for what took place for her own death?” Logan asks.

“For standing up outside the car, I think it was she to blame alone. Nobody else. Responsibility is hers,” Musharraf says.

“Don’t you think it will make her supporters crazy to hear you say that?” Logan asks.

“Well, I don’t think so. I mean, that’s the fact. She shouldn’t have stood up,” Musharraf says.

“Just so I’m clear, even with the benefit of hindsight, you feel that your government, you and your government, did everything possible to give Benazir Bhutto the security she needed?” Logan asks.

“Yes, absolutely,” Musharraf says. “She had the threat. So she was given more security than any other person.”

Musharraf conceded that Bhutto’s return was a bitter pill to swallow. It was part of a deal engineered by the Bush administration after a year of political unrest and extremist violence in Pakistan.

“There was a year of secret negotiations; the United States administration has made their views very clear. President Bush endorsed Bhutto’s return, Condoleezza Rice, they had top State Department officials meeting with her. You yourself went to Dubai and met with her twice,” Logan says.

“Well, yes. All this was going - you seem to be well-informed. Very good. Yes it was happening, I agree,” Musharraf acknowledges.

“One of the reasons Benazir Bhutto had such popularity amongst top U.S. officials is that she cast herself as the person who would take action against al Qaeda. Who would go into the tribal areas. Who would get Bin Laden. Who would do all the things that she said you were not doing,” Logan says.

“No. Now, again, these are misperceptions of American thinking. All American media, some officials who don’t know Pakistan,” Musharraf responds.

“So what are you doing to find Osama bin Laden? What is Pakistan doing? What end are you actually still today - seven years - under you…,” Logan asks.

“We are…fighting terrorism. And we are fighting extremism,” Musharraf says.

“But the question is really within that fight against extremism, what are you doing - if you like - to find Osama Bin Laden?” Logan asks. “That’s what Americans want to know.”

“Okay. We are fighting first of all al Qaeda. Let’s take al Qaeda. We have arrested or eliminated about 700 al Qaeda leaders. Only Pakistan has done it. And lately also whoever has been killed or arrested, I challenge — who else, which other country has done this?” Musharraf asks.

(CBS) “Well, which other country has Osama bin Laden?” Logan replies.

“No, I challenge– I don’t accept that at all. There is no proof whatsoever that he is here in Pakistan,” Musharraf says.

“But are you looking for him?” Logan asks.

“No, again, the same answer,” Musharraf says. “We are not particularly looking for him but we are operating against terrorists and al Qaeda and militant Taliban. And in the process, obviously, it is combined, maybe we are looking for him also. Yes. If he’s here?”

Musharraf was quick to blame Bhutto’s assassination on al Qaeda, particularly a local extremist named Beitullah Mehsud, who operates out of Pakistan’s lawless tribal region where both al Qaeda and the Taliban enjoy widespread support.

“Point two percent of our population is in South Waziristan and North Waziristan. Point two percent,” Musharraf says.

“Well, that point two percent has be able to cause a lot of trouble,” Logan remarks.

“Yes. We must not say that Taliban are in Pakistan. Pakistan, this is a frontier region. Two tribal agencies of Pakistan,” Musharraf says.

“It’s still inside Pakistan. Any way you look at it,” Logan points out.

“But it’s a small part the population and it is this population where they hide and they get support,” Musharraf says.

“But they regrouped under…,” Logan says.

“Yes, indeed,” Musharraf says.

“…your watch?” Logan says.

“No, they regrouped because — not under us. Because of Afghanistan. Okay?” Musharraf says.

“But under your term as president,” Logan remarks.

“Yes. Yes, indeed,” Musharraf acknowledges.

“They have regrouped and they are stronger than ever,” Logan says.

“Well, Taliban. Yes. They may be. They may be getting stronger. I can’t say for sure,” Musharraf says.

Asked if the U.S. shares any of the blame in this, Musharraf says, “Yes, of course. I mean everyone, the whole coalition should share the blame for not succeeding.”

Of all the issues 60 Minutes discussed with Musharraf, the one that seemed to affect him the most personally, was about accusations that he may somehow have been involved in Bhutto’s death.

“There have been suggestions among certain quarters, particularly amongst Benazir Bhutto’s supporters, that you may have had a hand in her killing,” Logan says.

“This is unfortunately a very baseless allegation. Nobody has a right to blame anyone for killing anyone unless they have the proof. I’ve lived in a family which believes in values - it believes in certain principles. It stands for character. And I stand for that,” Musharraf says. “Why would I be informing her about all these intelligence reports that we have against her, the threat to her? Why would I be doing that? Why would I be concerned about telling her all this? ‘Don’t go there, don’t do this, don’t do that.’ So these are all indicators. I can’t prove it legally, I can’t prove my innocence legally. But I can prove it only through what I stand for as a person.”

Source: [CBS News]

Chocolate (pronounced /ˈtʃɑklɪt/ (help·info), British English: /ˈtʃɒklət/; it originates from a Nahuatl word meaning “bitter water”) comprises a number of raw and processed foods that originate from the seed of the tropical cacao tree. It is a common ingredient in many kinds of confections such as chocolate bars, candy, ice cream, cookies, cakes, pies, chocolate mousse, and other desserts. It is one of the most popular and recognizable flavours in the world.

Chocolate is made from the fermented, roasted, and ground seeds taken from the pod of the tropical cacao tree, Theobroma cacao. The tree is native to lowland tropical Central America but is now cultivated throughout the tropics. The seeds have an intense bitter taste, and must be fermented to develop the chocolate flavor. The resulting products are known as “chocolate” or, in some parts of the world, cocoa.

Chocolate, or cacao, beverages were made by many Mesoamerican civilizations in antiquity, including the Maya and the Aztecs. The fermented seeds of the Theobroma cacao tree were ground and mixed with other ingredients such as honey, chile peppers, water, and the ground seeds of other plants.

Today, chocolate commonly refers to bars made from the combination of cocoa solids, fat (usually cocoa butter), sugar and other ingredients. Chocolate bars have a melting point just below body temperature. Chocolate contains alkaloids such as theobromine and phenethylamine, and has numerous physiological effects on the body: it has been linked with serotonin levels in the brain. The presence of theobromine renders it toxic to some animals such as dogs.

Chocolate is often produced as small molded forms in the shape of squares, animals, people, or inanimate objects to celebrate festivals worldwide. For example, there are moulds of rabbits or eggs for Easter, coins for Hanukkah, Saint Nicholas (Santa Claus) for Christmas, and hearts for Valentine’s Day. Chocolate can also be made into drinks (called cocoa and hot chocolate), as originated by the Aztecs and the Mayas. In England, Samuel Pepys records in his diaries at least two entries relating to “jocolatte” as early as the 1660s.[1] Later, in 1689 Hans Sloane developed a milk chocolate drink in Jamaica initially used by apothecaries, but later sold by the Cadbury brothers.

History
 
 A mug of modern hot chocolate. The first chocolate was drunk rather than eaten.Main article: History of chocolate
The word “chocolate” comes from the Nahuatl language of the Aztecs of Mexico. The word is derived from the Nahuatl word xocolatl (IPA /ʃo’kola:tɬ/)[2], which is a combination of the words, xocolli, meaning “bitter”, and atl, which is “water”. The Aztecs associated chocolate with Xochiquetzal, the goddess of fertility. Chocolate is also associated with the Mayan god of Fertility. Mexican philologist Ignacio Davila Garibi, proposed that “Spaniards had coined the word by taking the Maya word chocol and then replacing the Maya term for water, haa, with the Aztec one, atl.”[3] However, it is more likely that the Aztecs themselves coined the term, [4] having long adopted into Nahuatl the Mayan word for the “cacao” bean; the Spanish had little contact with the Mayans before Cortés’s early reports to the Spanish King of the beverage known as xocolatl.[5] However, Micheal D. Coe, professor Emeritus of Anthropology and Curator Emeritus in the Peabody Museum of Natural History at Yale University, and coauthor of the book The True History of Chocolate, argues that the word xocolatl appears in “no truly early source on the Nahuatl language or on Aztec culture.”

The earliest record of using chocolate pre-dates the Mayans. Chocolate residue has been found in pottery dating to 1100 BC from Honduras,[6] and 600-400 BC from Belize. The chocolate residue found in an early classic ancient Maya pot in Río Azul, northern Guatemala, suggests that Mayans were drinking chocolate around 400 A.D.. Chocolate has been used solely as a drink for nearly all of its history. In the New World, chocolate was consumed in a bitter, spicy drink called xocoatl, and was often flavored with vanilla, chile pepper, and achiote, (which is known today as annatto). Xocoatl was believed to fight fatigue, a belief that is probably attributable to the theobromine content. Other chocolate drinks combined it with such edibles as maize starch paste (which acts as an emulsifier and thickener), various fruits, and honey.

Chocolate was an important luxury good throughout pre-Columbian Mesoamerica, and cacao beans were often used as currency.[7] For example, the Aztecs used a system in which one turkey cost one hundred cacao beans and one avocado was worth three beans.

In 1689 noted physician and collector Hans Sloane, developed a milk chocolate drink in Jamaica which was initially used by apothecaries, but later sold by the Cadbury brothers.[8]
Production
 
A cacao tree with fruit pods in various stages of ripeningRoughly two-thirds of the entire world’s cocoa is produced in Western Africa, with close to half of the total sourced from Côte d’Ivoire. Like many food industry producers, individual cocoa farmers are at the mercy of volatile world markets. The price can vary from £500 ($945) to £3,000 ($5,672) per ton, in the space of just a few years. While investors trading in cacao can dump shares at will, individual cocoa farmers cannot increase production or abandon trees at anywhere near that pace. When cocoa prices drop, farmers in West Africa sometimes cut costs by using slave labor.[9] It has been alleged that an estimated 90% of cocoa farms in Côte d’Ivoire have used some form of slave labor in order to remain viable.[10]

Despite some disagreement in the EU about the definition, chocolate is any product made primarily of cocoa solids and cocoa fat. The different flavours of chocolate can be obtained by varying the time and temperature when roasting the beans, by adjusting the relative quantities of the cocoa solids and cocoa fat, and by adding non-chocolate ingredients.

Production cost can be decreased by reducing cocoa solid content or by substituting cocoa butter with a non-cocoa fat. Chocolate is a popular ingredient in many other foods, so any change in its cost has a significant economic impact on the food market.

There are two main jobs associated with creating chocolate candy, chocolate makers and chocolatiers. Chocolate makers use harvested cacao beans and other ingredients to produce couverture chocolate. Chocolatiers use the finished couverture to make chocolate candies (bars, truffles, baked goods, etc.).[11]
Bean

Varieties
The three main varieties of cacao beans used in chocolate are Criollo, Forastero and Trinitario.

Criollo is the rarest and most expensive cocoa on the market and is native to Central America, the Caribbean islands and the northern tier of South American states. There is some dispute about the genetic purity of cocoas sold today as Criollo, because most populations have been exposed to the genetic influence of other varieties. Criollos are particularly difficult to grow, as they are vulnerable to a variety of environmental threats and produce low yields of cocoa per tree. The flavour of Criollo is unique. It is described as delicate yet complex, low in classic chocolate flavour, but rich in “secondary” notes of long duration.

Forastero is a large group of wild and cultivated cacaos, most likely native to the Amazon basin. The African cocoa crop is entirely of the Forastero variety. They are significantly hardier and of higher yield than Criollo. Forastero cocoas are typically strong in classic “chocolate” flavour, but have a short duration and are unsupported by secondary flavours. There are exceptional Forasteros, such as the “Nacional” or the “Arriba” varieties, which can be very complex flavors.

Trinitario is a natural hybrid of Criollo and Forastero. Trinitario originated in Trinidad (hence the name) after an introduction of (Amelonado) Forastero to the local Criollo crop. These cocoas encompass a wide range of flavour profiles according to the genetic heritage of each tree.

Nearly all cacao produced over the past five decades is of the Forastero or lower-grade Trinitario varieties. The share of higher quality Criollos and Trinitarios (so-called flavour cacao) is just under 5% per annum.[12]

Cacao trees are difficult to grow and cultivate as they will only grow twenty degrees north and twenty degrees south of the equator. The temperature for cacao trees cannot drop below sixty degrees fahrenheit without damaging the tree.
Harvesting
Harvesting cacao beans is a delicate process. First, the pods, containing cacao beans, are harvested. The beans, together with their surrounding pulp, are removed from the pod and placed in piles or bins to ferment for three to seven days. The fermentation process is what gives the beans the chocolate taste that we know and love. The beans must then be quickly dried to prevent mold growth; weather permitting, this is done by spreading the beans out in the sun.
Chocolate liquor
The dried beans are transported from the plantation where they were grown to a chocolate manufacturing facility.

The beans are then cleaned (removing twigs, stones, and other debris), roasted, and graded. Next the shells are removed to extract the nib. Finally, the nibs are ground which releases and melts the cocoa butter producing chocolate liquor.

There are three things that can be done with the chocolate liquor at this point:

It can be solidified and sold (in the US) as unsweetened baking chocolate.
Cocoa butter can be removed from it and the result is cocoa powder. There are several mechanisms for removing cocoa butter from chocolate liquor. These include using hydraulic pressure, the Broma process.
Cocoa butter can be added to it to make eating chocolate.

Blending
Main article: Types of chocolate
Chocolate liquor is blended with the cocoa butter in varying quantities to make different types of chocolate or couvertures. The basic blends of ingredients for the various types of chocolate (in order of highest quantity of cocoa liquor first), are as follows:

Dark chocolate: sugar, cocoa butter, cocoa liquor, and (sometimes) vanilla
Milk chocolate: sugar, cocoa butter, cocoa liquor, milk or milk powder, and vanilla
White chocolate: sugar, cocoa butter, milk or milk powder, and vanilla
Usually, an emulsifying agent such as soya lecithin is added, though a few manufacturers prefer to exclude this ingredient for purity reasons and to remain GMO-free (Soya is a heavily genetically modified crop), sometimes at the cost of a perfectly smooth texture. Some manufacturers are now using PGPR, an artificial emulsifier derived from castor oil that allows them to reduce the amount of cocoa butter while maintaining the same mouthfeel.

The texture is also heavily influenced by processing, specifically conching (see below). The more expensive chocolates tend to be processed longer and thus have a smoother texture and “feel” on the tongue, regardless of whether emulsifying agents are added.

Different manufacturers develop their own “signature” blends based on the above formulas but varying proportions of the different constituents are used.
Chocolate made with enough cocoa butter flows gently over a chocolate fountain to serve fondue.The finest plain dark chocolate couvertures contain at least 70% cocoa (solids + butter), whereas milk chocolate usually contains up to 50%. High-quality white chocolate couvertures contain only about 33% cocoa. Some mass-produced chocolate contains much less cocoa (as low as 7% in many cases) and fats other than cocoa butter. Some chocolate makers opine that these “chocolate” products should not be classed as couvertures, or even as chocolate, because of the low or virtually non-existent cocoa content.

In 2007, the Chocolate Manufacturers Association, whose members include Hershey, Nestlé, and Archer Daniels Midland, lobbied the FDA to change the legal definition of chocolate to let them substitute partially hydrogenated vegetable oils for cocoa butter in addition to using artificial sweeteners and milk substitutes.[13] Currently, the FDA does not allow a product to be referred to as “chocolate” if the product contains any of these ingredients. [14][15]
Conching
Main article: Conching
The penultimate process is called conching. A conche is a container filled with metal beads, which act as grinders. The refined and blended chocolate mass is kept liquid by frictional heat. The conching process produces cocoa and sugar particles smaller than the tongue can detect, hence the smooth feel in the mouth. The length of the conching process determines the final smoothness and quality of the chocolate. High-quality chocolate is conched for about 72 hours, lesser grades about four to six hours. After the process is complete, the chocolate mass is stored in tanks heated to approximately 45–50 °C (113–122 °F) until final processing.
Tempering
 
Chocolate truffles typically have a thin shell of tempered chocolate, a dusting of cocoa powder and a soft creamy center.The final process is called tempering. Uncontrolled crystallization of cocoa butter typically results in crystals of varying size, some or all large enough to be clearly seen with the naked eye. This causes the surface of the chocolate to appear mottled and matte, and causes the chocolate to crumble rather than snap when broken. The uniform sheen and crisp bite of properly processed chocolate are the result of consistently small cocoa butter crystals produced by the tempering process.

The fats in cocoa butter can crystallize in six different forms (polymorphous crystallization). The primary purpose of tempering is to assure that only the best form is present. The six different crystal forms have different properties.

Crystal Melting Temp. Notes
I 17 °C (63 °F) Soft, crumbly, melts too easily.
II 21 °C (70 °F) Soft, crumbly, melts too easily.
III 26 °C (78 °F) Firm, poor snap, melts too easily.
IV 28 °C (82 °F) Firm, good snap, melts too easily.
V 34 °C (94 °F) Glossy, firm, best snap, melts near body temperature (37 °C).
VI 36 °C (97 °F) Hard, takes weeks to form.

Making good chocolate is about forming the most of the type V crystals. This provides the best appearance and mouth feel and creates the most stable crystals so the texture and appearance will not degrade over time. To accomplish this, the temperature is carefully manipulated during the crystallization.

Generally, the chocolate is first heated to 45 °C (113 °F) to melt all six forms of crystals. Then the chocolate is cooled to about 27 °C (80 °F), which will allow crystal types IV and V to form (VI takes too long to form). At this temperature, the chocolate is agitated to create many small crystal “seeds” which will serve as nuclei to create small crystals in the chocolate. The chocolate is then heated to about 31 °C (88 °F) to eliminate any type IV crystals, leaving just the type V. After this point, any excessive heating of the chocolate will destroy the temper and this process will have to be repeated. However, there are other methods of chocolate tempering used– the most common variant is introducing already tempered, solid “seed” chocolate.

Two classic ways of tempering chocolate are:

Working the molten chocolate on a heat-absorbing surface, such as a stone slab, until thickening indicates the presence of sufficient crystal “seeds”; the chocolate is then gently warmed to working temperature.
Stirring solid chocolate into molten chocolate to “inoculate” the liquid chocolate with crystals (this method uses the already formed crystal of the solid chocolate to “seed” the molten chocolate).
Another more modern way to temper chocolate is with a chocolate temper meter. Temper meters offer accuracy and repeatability for the measurement of chocolate temper in a single, compact, no-mess, easy to operate unit. The user fills a sample cup with chocolate, places it in the unit, and has printed & displayed temper results within minutes. Monitoring chocolate temper using a temper meter ensures the chocolate’s stability, best flow properties, rapid set, high gloss, mold release, and bloom resistance. Use of a temper meter allows corrective action to be taken before temper becomes unacceptable and reduces production yield and shelf life.
Storing
Chocolate is very sensitive to temperature and humidity. Ideal storage temperatures are between 15 and 17 degrees Celsius (59 to 63 degrees Fahrenheit), with a relative humidity of less than 50%. Chocolate should be stored away from other foods as it can absorb different aromas. Ideally, chocolates are packed or wrapped, and placed in proper storage with the correct humidity and temperature. Additionally chocolate should be stored in a dark place or protected from light by wrapping paper. Various types of “blooming” effects can occur if chocolate is stored or served improperly. If refrigerated or frozen without containment, chocolate can absorb enough moisture to cause a whitish discoloration, the result of fat or sugar crystals rising to the surface. Moving chocolate from one temperature extreme to another, such as from a refrigerator on a hot day can result in an oily texture. Although visually unappealing, these conditions are perfectly safe for consumption.[16][17][18]
Physiological effects

Pleasure of consuming
 
Molten ChocolatePart of the pleasure of eating chocolate is due to the fact that its melting point is slightly below human body temperature: it melts in the mouth. Chocolate intake has been linked with release of serotonin in the brain, which produces feelings of pleasure.[19] A study reported by the BBC indicated that melting chocolate in one’s mouth produced an increase in brain activity and heart rate that was more intense than that associated with passionate kissing, and also lasted four times as long after the activity had ended.[20] Research has shown that heroin addicts tend to have an increased liking for chocolate; this may be because it triggers dopamine release in the brain’s reinforcement systems[21] — an effect, albeit a legal one, similar to that of opiates.
Potential health benefits and risks
Recent studies have suggested that cocoa or dark chocolate may possess certain beneficial effects on human health. Dark chocolate, with its high cocoa content, is a rich source of the flavonoids epicatechin and gallic acid, which are thought to possess cardioprotective properties. Cocoa possesses a significant antioxidant action, protecting against LDL oxidation, perhaps more than other polyphenol antioxidant-rich foods and beverages. Processing cocoa with alkali destroys most of the flavonoids.[22] Some studies have also observed a modest reduction in blood pressure and flow-mediated dilation after consuming approximately 100g of dark chocolate daily. There has even been a fad diet, named “Chocolate diet”, that emphasizes eating chocolate and cocoa powder in capsules. However, consuming milk chocolate or white chocolate, or drinking fat-containing milk with dark chocolate, appears largely to negate the health benefit.[23] Processed cocoa powder (so called Dutch chocolate), processed with alkali greatly reduces the antioxidant capacity as compared to “raw” cocoa powder. [24] Chocolate is also a calorie-rich food with a high fat content, so daily intake of chocolate also requires reducing caloric intake of other foods.

Two-thirds of the fat in chocolate comes in the forms of a saturated fat called stearic acid and a monounsaturated fat called oleic acid. However, unlike other saturated fats, stearic acid does not raise levels of LDL cholesterol in the bloodstream.[25] Consuming relatively large amounts of dark chocolate and cocoa does not seem to raise serum LDL cholesterol levels; some studies even find that it could lower them[26].

Several population studies have observed an increase in the risk of certain cancers among people who frequently consume sweet ‘junk’ foods such as chocolate. However, very little evidence exists to suggest whether consuming flavonoid-rich dark chocolate may increase or decrease the risk of cancer. Evidence from laboratory studies suggest that cocoa flavonoids may possess anticarcinogenic mechanisms, but more research is needed to prove this idea.

The major concern that nutritionists have is that even though eating dark chocolate may favorably affect certain biomarkers of cardiovascular disease, the amount needed to have this effect would provide a relatively large quantity of calories which, if unused, would promote weight gain. Obesity is a significant risk factor for many diseases, including cardiovascular disease. As a consequence, consuming large quantities of dark chocolate in an attempt to protect against cardiovascular disease has been described as ‘cutting off one’s nose to spite one’s face’.[27].

Studies suggest a specially formulated type of cocoa may boost brain function and delay decline as people age.[28]

Small but regular amounts of dark chocolate were shown to lower the possibility of heart attack.[29]
As a stimulant
See also: chocoholism
 
A chocolate sweet.Chocolate contains a variety of substances, some of which have an effect on body chemistry. These include:

Sugar: Chocolate bars (as opposed to cocoa) contain large amounts of sugar.
Theobromine: This is the primary alkaloid found in cocoa and chocolate[30], and is one of the causes for chocolate’s mood-elevating effects. This mild stimulant belongs to the methylxanthine family, which also includes the similar compound caffeine, with which theobromine is frequently confused.
Anandamide: An endogenous cannabinoid.
Tryptophan: An essential amino acid that is a precursor to serotonin, an important neurotransmitter involved in regulating moods.
Phenethylamine: An endogenous alkaloid and monoamine. Often described as a ‘love chemical’[31], it can cause endorphin releases in the brain.[20]. However, unlike its synthetic derivative amphetamine, it is quickly metabolized by the enzyme MAO-B, preventing significant concentrations from reaching the brain.
Caffeine: This stimulant is present mainly in coffee and tea, but exists in chocolate in very small amounts[30]. The amount of caffeine in chocolate is roughly 6 mg per ounce (about 30 g) of chocolate bar[6]. Compare with 100-150 mg of caffeine in a cup of coffee.
Current research indicates that chocolate has a weak stimulant effect due mainly to its content of theobromine.[32] However, chocolate contains too little of this compound for a reasonable serving to create effects in humans that are on par with a coffee buzz. Chocolate contains only small amounts of the compound caffeine.[33] There are 5 to 10 milligrams of caffeine in one ounce of bittersweet chocolate, 5 milligrams in milk chocolate, and 10 milligrams in a 170 millilitre cup of cocoa. There are 100 to 150 milligrams of caffeine in a 220 millilitre cup of coffee; it would be necessary to eat more than a dozen chocolate bars to get the same amount of caffeine as one cup of coffee. The pharmacologist Ryan J. Huxtable has described chocolate as “more than a food but less than a drug”. However, chocolate is a very potent stimulant for horses; its use is therefore banned in horse-racing. Theobromine is also a contributing factor in acid reflux because it relaxes the esophageal sphincter muscle, allowing stomach acid to enter the esophagus more easily.
Molten chocolate and a piece of a chocolate barChocolate also contains small quantities of the endogenous cannabinoid anandamide and the cannabinoid breakdown inhibitors N-oleoylethanolamine and N-linolenoylethanolamine. Anandamides are produced naturally by the body, in such a way that their effects are extremely targeted (compared to the broad systemic effects of drugs like tetrahydrocannabinol) and relatively short-lived. In experiments, N-oleoylethanolamine and N-linolenoylethanolamine interfere with the body’s natural mechanisms for breaking down endogenous cannabinoids, causing them to last longer. However, noticeable effects of chocolate related to this mechanism in humans have not been demonstrated.

Some studies have described a condition called Hysteroid dysphoria, characterized by repeated episodes of depressed mood in response to feeling rejected, and a craving for chocolate.
Medical applications
Mars, Incorporated, a Virginia-based candy company, spends millions of dollars each year on flavonol research. The company is talking with pharmaceutical companies to license drugs based on synthesized cocoa flavonol molecules. According to Mars-funded researchers at Harvard, the University of California, and European universities, cocoa-based prescription drugs could potentially help treat diabetes, dementia and other diseases.[34]
Coughing
Research indicates that chocolate may be effective at preventing persistent coughing. The ingredient theobromine was found to be almost one third more effective than codeine, the leading cough medicine.[35] The chocolate also appears to soothe and moisten the throat.
Diarrhea
South American and European cultures have used cocoa to treat diarrhea for hundreds of years.[36] A study done at Children’s Hospital & Research Center Oakland, in collaboration with scientists at Heinrich Heine University in Germany, has shown that flavonoids can inhibit the development of fluids that result in diarrhea.[37]
As an aphrodisiac
Romantic lore commonly identifies chocolate as an aphrodisiac. The reputed aphrodisiac qualities of chocolate are most often associated with the simple sensual pleasure of its consumption. More recently, suggestion has been made that serotonin and other chemicals found in chocolate, most notably phenethylamine, can act as mild sexual stimulants. While there is no firm proof that chocolate is indeed an aphrodisiac, giving a gift of chocolate to one’s sweetheart is a familiar courtship ritual.[38]
Acne
There is a popular belief that the consumption of chocolate can cause acne. Pure chocolate contains anti-oxidants which aid better skin complexion. The University of Pennsylvania and the US Naval Academy conducted experiments that fed subjects chocolate or a bar with similar amounts of macronutrients (fat, sugar etc.) and found that consumption of chocolate, frequent or not, had no effect on the developing of acne. [39] Chocolate bars with milk content may contribute to acne. It is not the chocolate itself that causes acne, but rather the milk with which the chocolate is mixed.[40]
Chocolate, ranging from dark to light, can be molded and decorated like these chickens with ribbons.
Lead
Chocolate has one of the higher concentrations of lead among products that constitute a typical Westerner’s diet. Recent studies have shown that although the beans themselves absorb little lead, it tends to bind to cocoa shells and contamination may occur during the manufacturing process.[41] A recent peer-reviewed publication found significant amounts of lead in chocolate.[42] A review article published in a peer-reviewed journal in 2006 states that despite high consumption levels of chocolate, there is a paucity of data on lead concentrations in chocolate products. In a USDA study in 2004, mean lead levels in the samples tested ranged from 0.0010 to 0.0965 µg lead per gram of chocolate, but another study by a Swiss research group in 2002 found that some chocolate contained up to 0.769 µg per gram, close to the international (voluntary) standard limit for lead in cocoa powder or beans, which is 1 µg of lead per gram.[43] In 2006, the U.S. FDA lowered by one-fifth the amount of lead permissible in candy, but compliance is only voluntary.[44] While studies show that the lead consumed in chocolate may not all be absorbed by the human body, there is no known threshold for the effects of lead on children’s brain function and even small quantities of lead can cause permanent neurodevelopmental deficits including impaired IQ.[45]
Toxicity in animals
Main article: theobromine poisoning
In sufficient amounts, the theobromine found in chocolate is toxic to animals such as horses, dogs, parrots, small rodents, and cats (kittens especially) because they are unable to metabolise the chemical effectively. If they are fed chocolate, the theobromine will remain in their bloodstream for up to 20 hours, and these animals may experience epileptic seizures, heart attacks, internal bleeding, and eventually death. Medical treatment involves inducing vomiting within two hours of ingestion, or contacting a veterinarian.

A typical 20-kilogram (40-lb) dog will normally experience great intestinal distress after eating fewer than 240 grams (8.47 oz) of dark chocolate, but will not necessarily experience bradycardia or tachycardia unless it eats at least a half a kilogram (1.1 lb) of milk chocolate. Dark chocolate has 2 to 5 times more theobromine and thus is more dangerous to dogs. According to the Merck Veterinary Manual, approximately 1.3 grams of baker’s chocolate per kilogram of a dog’s body weight (0.02 oz/lb) is sufficient to cause symptoms of toxicity. For example, a typical 25-gram (0.88 oz) baker’s chocolate bar would be enough to bring about symptoms in a 20-kilogram (44 lb) dog. Of course, baking chocolate is rarely consumed directly due to its unpleasant taste, but other dark chocolates’ canine toxicities may be extrapolated based on this figure. Large dogs such as St. Bernards or Rottweilers are somewhat less susceptible to poisoning, but caution is still necessary. As dogs like the taste of chocolate products as much as humans do, and are capable of finding and eating quantities much larger than typical human servings, they should be kept out of their reach. Treats made from carob are a good substitute and pose no threat. There are reports that mulch made from cacao bean shells is dangerous to pets (and other animals).[46][47][48]
An alternative to chocolate
 
A model of the Reichstag made of chocolate at a Berlin shopThe seeds of the Carob tree are used as a chocolate substitute and in some animal treats instead of chocolate due to the toxicity of real chocolate. It is also used as a sweetener. For those allergic to chocolate it may provide an alternative without the allergic side effects.
Labelling
Some manufacturers provide the percentage of chocolate in a finished chocolate confection as a label quoting percentage of “cocoa” or “cacao”. It should be noted that this refers to the combined percentage of both cocoa solids and cocoa butter in the bar, not just the percentage of cocoa solids [7].

Chocolates that are organic or fair trade certified carry labels accordingly. Manufacturers may also state whether their chocolate is shade grown.

In the US, some manufacturers are lobbying the government to permit confection containing hydrogenated vegetable oil in place of cocoa butter to be sold as “chocolate”. This is controversial [8] and as of July 2007 the FDA has not yet consented to permit it.

What Inky Beast?

Inspired by an odd leap in “frog tattoo” searches, we checked on the menagerie of animal body art. Because the beasts in question aren’t standard barnyard fare, we found quite a few interesting ink choices in our top 20 animal tattoo searches.

In the top spot, the delicate butterfly symbolizes metamorphosis, so it’s no surprise that deep thinkers flock to this tattoo to represent their changing moods. Following the wings of the butterfly are 19 other critters emblazoned on arms, backs, and legs all over the world…

A couple final drops of ink…

—We were a bit surprised that dogs didn’t bark loud enough to make our top 20. We could blame it on the wide variety of breeds splitting the Search vote. Or the fact that you don’t find many Shih Tzu owners into body art. Either way, the top three breeds in Buzz are “bulldog tattoos,” “pitbull tattoos,” and “rottweiler tattoos.”

—Fish usually symbolize knowledge—but folks searching on “coy fish tattoo” should go back to the drawing board. Other popular fish tattoo searches swimming throught the Buzz included: “pisces fish tattoos,” “jesus fish tattoos,” and “tribal fish tattoos.”

People wearing traditional masks take part in a parade in Oaxaca’s square, July 21. REUTERS/Daniel Aguilar

A wakeboarder jumps into the air on Budapest’s Lake Omszk, July 23, 2007. REUTERS/Laszlo Balogh

Swimmers perform like gold fish in a large fish tank during a preview of the Muscle Musical at a Toyko theater.(AFP/Yoshikazu Tsuno)

A Meerkat keeps himself warm under a heat lamp in his enclosure at Sydney’s Taronga Zoo Friday, July 20, 2007. During a week when Sydney experienced its coldest winter’s day in 21 years with temperatures dropping to an arctic negative 0.6 degrees the zoo provided infrared heat lamps for the active little desert dwellers to keep warm. (AP Photo/Mark Baker)

Bri, a trained service dog, greets troops and others upon their arrival from Iraq at the Bangor, Maine International Airport on Wednesday, July 10, 2007. The Maine Troop Greeters have done it for more than 1,800 flights since 2003 at Bangor International Airport, frequently the last U.S. stop for overseas-bound troops and their first taste of America on the return trip.The volunteer group is reaching a milestone: Sometime next month it expects to greet its 500,000th servicemember since the Iraq war began. (AP Photo/Pat Wellenbach)

A male long-coated chihuahua named “Heart-kun” with a heart-shaped pattern on his coat sits at Pucchin Dog’s shop in Odate, northern Japan July 10, 2007. The one-and-a-half-month-old chihuahua was born on May 18, 2007 as one of a litter. The shop owner Emiko Sakurada said that this is the first time a puppy with these marks has been born out of a 1,000 that she has bred. She also said that she has no plans to sell the puppy. REUTERS/Issei Kato (JAPAN). EDITORIAL USE ONLY. NOT FOR SALE FOR MARKETING OR ADVERTISING CAMPAIGNS. NO SALES. NO THIRD PARTY SALES. NOT FOR USE BY REUTERS THIRD PARTY DISTRIBUTORS.

One of three lion cubs, Andy, walks on a layer of snow in the Serengeti-Park in the north-western German town of Hodenghagen.(AFP/DDP/Stephan Simonsen)